a) Origin and geographical extent. The Illyrians were a large ancient population of the western part of the Balkans, extending from the Istrian peninsula, on the right bank of the Sava River, in the upper valleys of the Marg (South Morava) and Aksios (Vardar), in the Boion Mountains (Pindi) and in the Gulf of Ambracia (Gulf of Arta), to the Adriatic and Ionian coasts. The Illyrians were formed in a long process on the basis of the autochthonous population of the Eneolithic era, after the arrival of the Indo-European population at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. The ethnic features of the new population, which arose as a result of their symbiosis and fusion, were conceived during the Middle Bronze Age (see: Bronze Age), as a result of economic and social development. The specific Illyrian tribes, the Paionians and the Thesprotians – are mentioned in the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. The common name Illyrians appears only in the 5th century BC in Herodotus as a generalization of the name of a tribe that lived on the back of Dyrrachium to Kosovo, where the first nucleus of the Illyrian state was created. The main Illyrian tribes were the Histri, Liburnians, Japodians, Desidiates, Dalmatians, Autariates, Labeatians, Dardanians, Paionians, Ardians, Parthians, Dasarethians, Enkelians, Taulantians, Atintians – and those who were considered Epirotes: Kaonians, Thesprotians, Molossians – etc.
b) Socio-economic order. In its beginnings, the process of forming the Illyrian ethnos was associated with the creation of patriarchal tribal communities. In the Middle Bronze Age, economic and social differentiation began among the Illyrians, while in the Late Bronze Age this differentiation took on wider proportions. The intensification of these phenomena during the Iron Age created the premises for the formation of ancient society, first in the southern and western Illyrian regions and later in the northern and eastern ones. In written sources, the presence of social classes is mentioned since the 4th century with the Ardian prospelates and the Dardanian dulas. During the 3rd–2nd centuries, the need for slaves was met by wars, piracy, and debt slavery. The inscriptions of Butrint, Bylis, and Klos (Mallakastër) attest for a regular legislation on the treatment of slaves in Illyrian cities. During the 4th–2nd centuries BC, the products of Illyrian cities competed with Hellenic goods in the markets around them. Since the 2nd century AD, the Roman conquerors oriented the economy of the Illyrian regions towards agriculture, livestock and mining. Trade was oriented towards exports towards Rome. The main road became the Egnatia. The stratum of landowners, in addition to the locals, consisted of Roman colonists and those coming from different provinces of the empire. The crisis of the Roman Empire and the invasions of the Barbarians were reflected in the economy of the Illyrian regions with the establishment of the colonate system in the 4th century AD. The 4th–6th centuries AD mark the decline of the cities and the dominance of the agricultural economy.
c) History. During the 6th–5th centuries BC, the Illyrian state was also born, which in the 4th–2nd centuries BC became an important political factor in the Balkans. In terms of political form, the Illyrian state was a hereditary monarchy, ruled by representatives of the aristocracy. Its administrative divisions were centered on the main cities, where a dynasty appointed by the king stood. Within the monarchical framework of the Illyrian state, the cities and provinces around them had self-government in the form of communities with an executive council of annually elected officials and a legislative council at the top. In the 5th–4th centuries BC, the Illyrian state was fully formed as an institution based on the economic and social development of Illyria. The collapse of Rome’s goals for hegemony in the Adriatic became the cause of Roman aggression. In the first two wars with Rome (229–218 BC), the Illyrian state was broken and limited to the north of Mat. With King Gent (186–168), the Illyrian state resumed its policy against Rome and entered into an alliance with Macedonia and Dardania. With the Battle of Shkodra (168 BC), the Illyrian armies were defeated and the Illyrian state was destroyed. Later, the Illyrians staged a series of uprisings against the Roman occupation, the largest of which was the Illyrian uprising of 6–9 AD.
d) Culture. The distinction of the cultural features of the Illyrians becomes increasingly clear during the Middle Period and especially at the end of the Bronze Age. Fortified settlements were also created during this period, which are characterized by the division of the internal space with several rows of concentric walls. Local metallurgy produced various types of weapons based on Aegean prototypes with a refinement of the forms. The main tools were axes of the local “Dalmato-Albanian” and “Shkodra” types, as well as the southern type of double-edged axe.
In the Iron Age, the common cultural features of the Illyrian population are emphasized and take on a wider scope. For the southern regions, ceramics are based on two-handed forms and painting becomes a feature of the Illyrian territories of Epirus and Western Macedonia. For the northern territories, the same forms of ceramics were used, but the decoration was done with engraving, scratching or relief with geometric motifs. Fortified settlements also become centers where ceramics are produced or metals are worked for the needs of the tribal community and exchange in nature. Since the end of the 7th century BC with the beginning of the production of goods, changes are observed in the material culture of the Illyrians. Fortified proto-urban centers surrounded by walls of worked stone are created, as settlements of new social strata. Craft production is based on the tradition of the early iron age, by refining the forms of tools, weapons, ornaments and ceramics. After the middle of the 5th century BC, proper cities were created from proto-urban settlements. The most important cities were centers of production and exchange and were at the same time centers of geographical territories known as koinon, where smaller craft and agricultural centers operated.
In the 3rd–2nd centuries, state and private workshops completely dominated the Illyrian market and restricted Hellenic imports. Armament consisted of a helmet with a square opening for the face, a round shield with concentric circles and semicircles, swords, machete, spears, etc. With the Illyrian state, the forms and tactics of combat were refined into an Illyrian military art. Writing instruments and inscriptions are also found in small centers. Greek was used as the language of culture and all inscriptions have been found written in this language. Art developed in connection with practical needs. Round sculpture and relief were used mainly in architecture and in cemeteries. The main centers were Amantia, Bylis, Dimal, Belsh. The Illyrians adapted the gods of the Hellenic pantheon to their civic ideology, preserving the ancient forms of the local cult.
e) The language was Illyrian. A few glosses have been preserved from it, such as: sika “knife”, peli “old man” (Epirus), aspetos “fast” (Epirus), sabaja “a type of beer”, etc. A large number of proper names (of places and people) have been transmitted by ancient authors, some of which find explanation in Albanian words, such as Dardania with “pear”, Dalmatia with “delma, sheep”, Ulkin “wolf”, Bardhyl with “white”, Bala with “bale”, Daz with “ram” etc. Based on word formation, prefixes and suffixes and the changes that words have undergone, Illyrian has been defined as an Indo-European language.
ILLIRIA. A region in the western part of the ancient Balkans, inhabited by the Illyrians. It is first mentioned in the second half of the 4th century BC by Demosthenes as a western neighbor of Macedonia. With the formation of the Illyrian Kingdom, the name Illyrian also took on a narrow political meaning. In the 4th–3rd century BC, most of it was included in the Illyrian state under the name of the Illyrian Kingdom. After the Illyrian-Roman wars of 229–228, 219 and 168, a part of southern Illyria was conquered by the Romans and in 148 BC it was incorporated into the province of Macedonia. The northern part, called Illyricum, was created as a separate province by Julius Caesar and placed under the control of the Senate, which governed it through consuls. During the reign of Augustus, it came under the direct control of the emperor and was governed by a legate. After the Illyrian uprising of 6–9 AD, Illyricum was reorganized and divided into two provinces: Dalmatia and Pannonia.
ILLYRIC. An Indo-European language spoken in ancient times until the first centuries of the new era in Illyria. The Albanian language is derived from Illyrian. A special dialect of Illyrian, Mesapis, was also spoken in southern Italy in the region of Apulia and Calabria. The extent of Illyrian and Illyrics in the ancient period is still a controversial issue. We have neither written texts nor inscriptions from the Illyric of the Balkans. We know a little about it from some names of places, tribes and people of the Illyrian territories, from some glosses left by ancient authors, Greeks and Latins, and from some words that are considered Illyrian loanwords in ancient Greek and Latin. From the research and studies carried out during the 19th century and especially in the 20th century, a fairly extensive body of Illyrian material has been collected, systematized and published, and attempts have been made to define in general terms some of the phonological, lexical and word-forming features of the Illyrian language, as well as some aspects of its relations with other Indo-European languages. Researchers have noted some similarities between Illyric and Germanic, Baltic and Celtic languages. A good part of the linguistic material of Illyric finds explanation through Albanian. Syntheses of achievements in the field of studies on the Illyrians and Illyria were made in the symposium “Illyrians and the Genesis of the Albanians” (Tirana, 1967), and in the Assemblies of Illyrian Studies (1972, 1985).
